Study of the Thermal Comfort in the Holy Sites, Makkah

Abstract

This study investigates spatial and temporal variations in thermal comfort conditions across the Holy Sites of Mina, Arafat, and Muzdalifah using multi-temporal land surface temperature (LST) analysis for the years 2014, 2024, and 2025. Satellite-based thermal and optical imagery were integrated with GIS techniques to assess surface thermal behavior and its relationship with land cover characteristics. Urban Heat Island (UHI) patterns were examined through LST mapping, while vegetation and built-up intensity were quantified using the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and Normalized Difference Built-up Index (NDBI), respectively.

The results reveal pronounced spatial heterogeneity in surface temperatures across the Holy Sites, with higher LST values consistently associated with developed areas, road networks, and extensive paved surfaces. Arafat exhibits the highest thermal stress due to its large open paved areas and limited vegetation cover, whereas vegetation-covered zones show noticeably lower surface temperatures. Long-term thermal trend analysis indicates localized warming trends in intensively developed areas, particularly in Mina, while cooling or stable trends are observed in less modified zones, especially in parts of Muzdalifah.

The findings highlight the critical role of land cover composition and surface modification in shaping thermal conditions within large-scale religious gathering environments. This study provides an evidence-based framework to support climate-sensitive planning and thermal comfort enhancement strategies in the Holy Sites, contributing to improved environmental management and alignment with Saudi Vision 2030 and the Guests of God Service Program.